Mechanics of Material Lab Manual Essay Example for Free

Mechanics of Material Lab Manual Essay To investigate how shear strain varies with shear stress. c. To determine the Modulus of Rigidity of the rubber block. 4. Hooke’s Law for Wires a. To determine the Youngs Modulus of Elasticity of the specimen wire. b. To verify Hookes Law by experiment. 5. Strain in Compound Wires a. To determine the modulus of elasticity of two wires and hence evaluate the equivalent Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the combination b. To position the single applied load on the slotted link in order that both wires are subjected to common strain and hence to establish the load in each wire 6. Deflection of a simply supported beam To find the slope and deflection of a simply supported beam with point load at the center and to prove the results mathematically 7. Deflection of a cantilever beam To verify the slope and deflection of a cantilever beam experimentally and theoretically. 8. Deflection of a overhanging beam To find the central deflection of overhanging arm beam and confirm the results theoretically 9. Shear center for a channel Find Shear center for a channel section cantilever. 10. Unsymmetrical Deflections To determine the deflections for symmetrical bending of an angle section beam 1. Shear Forces and Bending Moment in Beams To measure the bending moment at a normal section of a loaded beam and to check its agreement with theory 12. Study and Application of experimental photoelasticty techniques on linear crack propagation analysis 13. Direction and magnitude of principal stresses To use the Photo-elasticity as an experimental technique for stress analysis and to understand construction and operation of transmission polariscope. 14. Calculation of stress intensity factor Interpretation of Fringe Data and calculation of stress intensity factor (k) at different loading conditions 5. Micro Hardness Testing 16. Thin Cylinder Experiment No. 1Compression of a spring 1. OBJECTIVES a) To obtain the relation among the force applied to an extension spring and its change in length. b) To determine the stiffness of the test spring (s). 2. PROCEDURE a) Setup the apparatus vertically to the wall at a convenient height. b) Add increasing loads to the load hanger recording to the corresponding deflection for each load. c) Continue loading until at least 30 mm of extension has been achieved. 3. RESULTS Tabulate the results obtained and draw a graph of load (y-axis) against extension (x-axis). Note the following data for each spring used:- a. Outside diameter, b. Effective length, c. Wire diameter, d. Number of turns. The stiffness to the spring is the force required to produce a nominal extension of 1 mm. [pic] If Kg masses are used: The force applied to the spring in Newtons = Mass in Kg x 9. 81. 4. POINTS TO PONDER a. What relationship exists between the applied force and compression? b. Did the spring (s) behave according to Hooke’s Law? c. State the stiffness value (s) obtained. d. If the graph drawn does not pass through the origin state why. Experiment No. 2 Extension of a spring . OBJECTIVES a. To obtain the relation among the force applied to a compression sping and its change in length. b. To determine the stiffness of the test spring (s) 2. PROCEDURE a. Setup the apparatus vertically to the wall at a convenient height. b. Add increasing weight to the load hanger recording to c. the corresponding deflection for each load. d. Continue loading until at least 30 mm of compression has e. been achieved. 3. RESULTS Tabulate the results obtained and draw a graph of load (y-axis) against compression (x-axis). Note the following data for each spring used :- e. Outside diameter, f. Effective length, g. Wire diameter, h. Number of turns. The stiffness to the spring is the force required to produce a nominal extension of 1 mm. [pic] If Kg masses are used: The force applied to the spring in Newtons = Mass in Kg x 9. 81. 4. POINTS TO PONDER a. What relationship exists between the applied force and compression? b. Did the spring (s) behave according to Hooke’s Law? c. State the stiffness value (s) obtained. d. If the graph drawn does not pass through the origin state why. Experiment No. 3 Rubber in Shear 1. OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the variation of deflection with applied load. . To investigate how shear strain varies with shear stress. 3. To determine the Modulus of Rigidity of the rubber block. 2. PROCEDURE 1. Set-up the apparatus securely to the wall at the convenient height 2. Note the initian dial gauge reading. 3. Add increasing increments of load and recird the corresponding deflections registered on the dial gauge. 4. Tabulate the results and draw a graph of deflection (x-axis) against applied load (y-axis). Describe the relationship between the deflections and the applied load. State if this follows a linear law. 3. Observations and Calculations: Load (W) |Deflection |Shear Stress |Shear Strain | | |X |= W/A |=X/L | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Modulus of rigidity of the rubber block = shear stress/ shear strain = slope of graph |Data |Dimensions (Metric) | Dimension of block |150*75*25 mm | |Dial Gauge |12 mm travel * . 01 mm | |Load Hanger |250 mm * 2 N | |Max. Load |160 N (16 kg) | Experiment No. 4 Hooke’s Law for Wires Objectives: 1. To determine the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the specimen wire. 2. To verify Hooke’s Law by experiment. 3. To establish a value for the ultimate stress of the wire. [pic] Procedure: 1. Note the length (L), diameter (d) and the material of the wire under test. 2. Add sufficient initial load to the hanger to remove the flexure of the specimen. 3. Let the scale measurement now showing be the zero position. 4. Add equal increments of load to the hanger and note the corresponding total extension (x) for each case. 5. Care should be taken to ensure that the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded. 6. Tabulate the results and draw a graph of load (W) against extension (X). 7. Continue to load the specimen until fracture occurs. Note the breaking load. Observations and Calculations: |S/No. Load (N) |Stress (N/m2) |Extension(mm) |Strain |Young’s Modulus (Y) | |BRASS | |1 | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | |STEEL | |1 | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | Young’s Modulus of elasticity E/xA = WL Ultimate Stres s = Total Load at fracture / area of wire General Questions 1. State Hooke’s Law. Did the extension of the wire under test confirm to Hooke’s Law? 2. Quote the values obtained for E and the ultimate stress and compare these with the normally accepted values for the material. Experiment No. 5 Strain in Compound Wires Objectives: 1. To determine the Module of Elasticity of the two wires and hence evaluate the equivalent Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the combination. 2. To postion the single applied load on the slotted link in order that both wires are subjected to common strain and hence to :- 3. Establish the load in each wire. 4. To obtain an experimental value of the equivalent Young’s Modulus of elsticityof the combination. 5. To compare the experimental and theoretical results. Procedure: 1. Note the length and the diameter of each wire and the distance between their centers. 2. Remove the slotted link and suspend the hanger from the lower and of the slide attached to one of the wires. 3. Apply a range of increasing loads and note the corresponding extension of the wire. 4. Do not allow the wire to exceed its elastic limit. 5. Plot a graph of load against extension, and from the slope of the straight-line graph, determine the value of Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the wire. a. Repeat this procedure for the other wire. b. Replace the slotted link and suspend the hanger from its edge placed at the center of the link. The length of one of the wires may require to be adjusted until the link is level. Small adjustment to the length of either one of the wires may be obtained by applying a supplementary load to its slide using another hanger. Place a load (W) on the central hanger and maintain a common extension in the wires (i. e. level condition) by adjusting the position of the knife-edge on the link. Note the new position of the load measured from the center of the left-hand wire. Note the magnitude of the applied load and the common extension of the wires. Repeat over a range of increasing loads. Tabulate the results and plot a graph of the load (W) against the extension (X) of the compound wire arrangement. Diagram and calculations: |S/No. Force (N) |fs (MPa) |fb (MPa) |fe (MPa) |ee * 10^-4 |Ee (Pa) * 10^10 | |1 | | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | | Experiment No. 6 Deflection of a simply supported beam OBJECTIVES To find the slope and deflection of a simply supported beam with point load at the centre and prove the results mathemati cally. APPARATUS 5. HST 6:1 with complete accessories 6. Vernier caliper, micrometer, meter rod, etc. [pic] PROCEDURE 1. Set up the two end supports at 1m span and insert the thick steel beam in the end and fixtures. 2. Place a load hanger and clamp at mid span and set up a dial gauge to measure the deflection at the load point. 3. Check that the end supports are free top rotate as the beam deflects. 4. Read the support rotation gauge and central deflection gauge. 5. Add load by increments of 1N up to 10 N recording the dial gauge reading and then move the load by the same decrements to obtain a duplicate set of readings. 6. Plot the end rotations and central deflection against the load. Observations and Calculations: |S/NO. |LOAD (N) |Slope |Deflection |Theoretical |Theoretical slope | | | | | |deflection | | | | |central |central |Y = |? | | | | | |WL3/48EI |WL2/16EI | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Experiment No. 7 Deflection of a cantilever beam OBJECTIVE To verify the slope and deflection of a cantilever beam experimentally and theoretically. APPARATUS 1. HST 6:1 with complete accessories 2. Vernier Caliper, micrometer, meter rod etc. [pic] PROCEDURE 1. Clamp the thicker steel strip (2. 64 mm) in the position shown in diagram so that it forms a cantileve r. 2. Fix the hanger clamp (0. 3m) from the fixed support and setup a dial guage over it. 3. Apply a load in increments of 1 /2 N up to about 5N reading the gauge at each load. 4. Plot a graph of deflection against load Observations and Calculations: |S/NO. LOAD (N) |Slope |Deflection |Theoretical |Theoretical slope | | | | | |deflection | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | RESULTS: 1. From the graph obtained, the best fit linear relationship between displacement and load the steel strip, compares the graidient with the theoretical value. 2. Comment on the accuracy of the theoretical results. Experiment No. Deflection of an overhang beam To find the deflection of overhanging arm beam and confirm the results theoretically OBJECTIVE To verify the slope and deflection of a overhang beam experimentally and theoretically. APPARATUS 3. HST 6:1 with complete accessories 4. Vernier Caliper, micrometer, meter rod etc. PROCEDURE 5. Clamp the thicker steel strip in the position shown in diagram so that it forms a overhang. 6. Fix the hanger clampahead from the roller support and setup a dial guage over it. 7. Apply a load in increments of 1 /2 N up to about 5N reading the gauge at each load. 8. Plot a graph of deflection against load Observations and Calculations: |S/NO. LOAD (N) |Slope |Deflection |Theoretical |Theoretical slope | | | | | |deflection | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | RESULTS: 3. From the graph obtained, the best fit linear relationship between displacement and load the steel strip, compares the graidient with the theoretical value. 4. Comment on the accuracy of the theoretical results. Experiment No. 9. Shear center for a channel OBJECTIVE To determine the share centre of a channel section cantilever and to draw the graph between notch distance and gauge readings. APPARATUS 7. Unsymmetrical cantilever 8. Rigid based plate, weights 9. String, pulley 10. Calibrated ring 11. Grid, two dial gauges PROCEDURE: 7. Turn the routable head, so that the cantilever section is positioned relative to the pulley. 8. Fit the share assessory to the top of the cantilever and turn the dial gauge so that they rest against the attachment. The grooves in the notched bar have the spacing of 5 mm. 9. Turn the scales of the dial gauges until they read zero. 10. Tie the string to the left hand notch. Move the pulley to the left and hang the weight hanger on the end of the string. Put a weight of 1 Kg on the hanger so that the total weight is 1,5Kg. 11. Adjust the pulley position until the string is parallel to the lines on the pulley bracket. Record the reading of the both dial gauges. 12. Move the string to the next notch. Readjust the pulley position, Record the dial gauges readings. 13. Repeat for each notch position. Results: Experimental position of Shear Center from the outside of the web. Theoretical position Channel Shear Center is h = B-2 A-2 t / IA Experiment No. 10 Unsymmetrical Bending of a Cantilever Beam |Direction of pull|Displacement |Applied load (Kg) | |(degrees) | | | | | |. 5 |1. 0 |1. 5 |2. 0 |2. 5 |3. | |0 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |22. 5 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |45 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |67. |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |90 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |112. 5 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |135 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |157. |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |180 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |Direction of pull|Displacement |Applied load (Kg) | |(degrees) | | | | | |. 5 |1. 0 |1. 5 |2. 0 |2. 5 |3. 0 | |0 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |22. |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |45 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |67. 5 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |90 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |112. |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |135 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |157. 5 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |180 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | Experiment No. 11 Bending Moment in Beams |S. No. Load (N) |Balance Reading (N)/ Net Force (N) | | | |W1 |W2 |W3 | |1 | | | | | |2 | | | | | |3 | | | | | |4 | | | | | |S. No. |Load (N) |Balnce Moment (N. mm)/ Theoretical Val. |1 | | | | | |2 | | | | | |3 | | | | | |4 | | | | | Experiment No. 13 Study and Application of experimental photoelasticty techniques on linear crack propagation analysis. OBJECTIVES To familiarize the students with the Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics in context with photoealsticity and orientation and understanding of operation off different types of polariscopes. THEORY The name photoelasticity reflects the nature of this experimental method: photo implies the use of light rays and optical techniques, while elasticity depicts the study of stresses and deformations in elastic bodies. Photoelastic analysis is widely used for problems in which stress or strain information is required for extended regions of the structure. Photo elastic stress analysis is a simple and powerful tool for design engineers that provide them with the experimental data required for validating analytical and computational designs. In using this method, a transparent plastic model of the structural part of the machine element under study is first made. Then the specimen was placed in the polariscope, and the simulating operating force was applied. When examined in the polarized light field provided by the instrument, colored fringe patterns are seen which reveal: †¢ A visible picture of the stress distribution over the whole area of the specimen. †¢ Stress distribution which is accurately readable at any point for both direction and magnitude. Two types of pattern can be obtained: isochromatics and isoclinics. These patterns are related to the principal-stress differences and to the principal-stress directions, respectively. Principles The method is based on the property of birefringence, which is exhibited by certain transparent materials. When polarized light passes through a stressed material, the light separates into two wave fronts travelling at different velocities, each oriented parallel to the direction of principal stresses(? 1,? 2) in the material but perpendicular to each other. Photoelastic materials exhibit the property of birefringence only on the application of stress and the magnitude of the refractive indices at each point in the material is directly related to the state of stress at that point. Thus, the first task is to develop a model made out of such materials. Isoclinics and isochromatics Isoclinics are the locus of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are in the same direction. Isochromatics are the locus of the points along which the difference in the first and second principal stress remains the same. Thus they are the lines which join the points with equal maximum shear stress magnitude. Interpretation of the Photoelastic Pattern: Once the fringes obtained by application of load on photoelasic specimen the most important step is interpretation of complete stress field. The photoelastic fringe pattern data offer suggestion to modify design to avoid from material failure. It is also helpful in reducing average stress on actual part. Complete stress field interpretation include principal stress directions as well as magnitude of stresses on different fringe order. [pic] Stimulated stress field pattern in white light for typical edge crack plate The photoelastic pattern appears as a colorful map of lines of equal color. Beginning at the lower level line of stress and progressing to areas of higher level, the colour sequence observed will be black, yellow, red, blue, yellow, red, green, yellow, red, green etc. The colour transmission from red to blue and from red to green is sharply marked. [pic] Polariscope: Polariscope: It is an instrument which consists of two polaroid plates mounted apart. The lower plate is generally fixed and is known as the polariser, while the upper plate can be rotated and is known as the analyser. Types: 1. Reflection Polariscope Particularly it is used to photoelastically stress-analyze opaque plastic parts. The part to be analyzed is coated with a photoelastic coating, service loads are applied to the part, and coating is illuminated by polarized light from the reflection polariscope. Molded-in or residual stresses cannot be observed with this technique. Fig. 13. 1 Typical reflection periscope on tripod stand 2. Transmission Polariscope. This type is useful for stress analysis if component is of transparent or glassy material. All transparent plastics, being birefringent, lend themselves to photoelastic stress analysis. The transparent part is placed between two polarizing mediums and viewed from the opposite side of the light source. In these experiments we will be only concerned with highlighting the dependence of stress distribution on geometric features, hence we can use the transparent materials and transmission type polariscope will be used. [pic] Fig. 13. 2 Transmission Polariscope Two arrangements of transmission polariscope are possible i. e. I. Plane polariscope Plane polariscope is used for direction measurement at a point of principal stresses for a specimen. The setup consists of two linear polarizers and a light source. The light source can either emit monochromatic light or white light depending upon the experiment. First the light is passed through the first polarizer which converts the light into plane polarized light. The apparatus is set up in such a way that this plane polarized light then passes through the stressed specimen. This light then follows, at each point of the specimen, the direction of principal stress at that point. The light is then made to pass through the analyzer and we finally get the fringe pattern. The fringe pattern in a plane polariscope setup consists of both the isochromatics and the isoclinics. The isoclinics change with the orientation of the polariscope while there is no change in the isochromatics. For this purpose, set the quarter wave plates on both the analyzer and the polarizer cells at position â€Å"D† (direction) to make the polariscope â€Å"plane† as shown below in fig13. 2 (b) Figure 13. 2 (a)Plane Polariscope Arrangement Figure 13. 2 (b)Pin postion at Plane Polariscope arrangement II. Circular polariscope When examining the model for determination of the stress distribution and magnitude, the polariscope must be transformed from a â€Å"PLANE† to a â€Å"CIRCULAR† operation. This is done by first making sure the clamp â€Å"A† is in the locked position and then withdrawing pins â€Å"B† on the ? wave plate from the hole â€Å"D† (direction) and rotating them until pins engage in hole â€Å"M† (magnitude). Now quarter wave plate is at 45 degrees to the polarizer-analyzer axis thus polariscope is in circular light operation Figure13. 3Circular Polariscope Arrangement(dark field) There are four different kinds of arrangements for the circular polariscope. Each arrangement produces either a dark field arrangement or a light field arrangement. In dark field arrangement, the fringes are shown by bright lines and the background is dark. The opposite holds true for the light field arrangement. Quarter Wave-Plates Arrangement |Polarizer’s Arrangement |Polariscope Field | |Crossed |Parallel |Light | |Crossed |Crossed |Dark | |Parallel |Parallel |Light | |Parallel |Crossed |Dark | Experiment No. 14 Calculation of direction and mag nitude of principal stresses using transmission polariscope. OBJECTIVES ) Application of photoelastic techniques to measure the direction of Principal Stresses at a point b) Calculation of magnitude of principal stresses by interpreting the fringe data. Apparatus Apparatus required to achieve the stated objectives are †¢ Transmission polariscope †¢ test specimen of different shapes †¢ Load measuring dial gauge †¢ Vernier Caliper and Meter Rod Construction of Transmission Polariscope: The basic polariscope consists of †¢ Rigid base frame ready to receive all of the modular accessory items. †¢ Two cells equipped with polarizing filters. †¢ Knob ‘H’ used to synchronously rotate the polarizer and analyzer (their common motion is indicated in degrees in the graduated dial). The quarter wave plate which can be used to convert plane polariscope into circular and vice versa. Fig 13. 2 show these components.. Specimen prepration: In this experi ment we are using photoelastic sheets (Polyurethane material) The photoelastic sheet was made into different specimens as stated below: a) specimen with holes drilled. b) specimen with cracks, which is manually cut c) specimens with notches Typical single edge crack specimen 2-D model is shown in fig. 14. Fig. 14. 1 PROCEDURE Measurement of Direction of Principal Stresses at a Point: To measure the direction of the principal stresses at a point in the specimen we follow the following steps: Place the specimen in the polariscope making sure that the specimen is aligned correctly within the clamps, hence avoiding any twisting of the specimen. †¢ Apply load (compressive or tensile) by turning the loading screw. †¢ Set the quarter wave plates on both the analyzer and the polarizer cells at position â€Å"D† to make the polariscope â€Å"plane† (Fig 13. 2 b). †¢ By means of knob ‘C’ rotate the analyzer until pointer â€Å"P† is positioned at 0 and 100 on the scale. †¢ Release the clamp ‘A’ if it was locked previously and by means of knob â€Å"H† rotate the whole assembly during this rotation some black and all the colored fringes will be observed to move. These black fringes which move are the isoclinics. †¢ Identify the point of measurement using a grease pencil or scriber. By means of knob â€Å"H† rotate the polarizer-analyzer assembly until a black isoclinic crosses over the marked point. At this point the axes of the polarizer and analyzer are parallel and perpendicular to the directions of the principal stresses and their directions can be seen from the scale by a pointer â€Å"V†. The rotation of the assembly may be clockwise or anti-clockwise; in order to accommodate this, sign is used with the value of this direction angle. The positive sign is used for clockwise rotation and negative is used for counter clockwise. Magnitude calculations ? The polariscope, and the digital camera are turned on ? Specimen undergoes tensile force/compressive load in Transmission Polariscope with one end fixed as in fig 13. 2 Fringes formed and photographed by digital camera ? A gradual tension was then added onto specimen and record the load reading by using dial-guage ? Print and interpret fringe pattern obtained in photographs according to the proce dure explained. Formulation for Stress Distribution: When examining the specimen for determination of the stress distribution and magnitude, the polariscope must be transformed from a â€Å"PLANE† to a â€Å"CIRCULAR† operation. This is done by first making sure the clamp â€Å"A† is in the locked position and then withdrawing pins â€Å"B† on the ? wave plate from the hole â€Å"D† (direction) and rotating them until pins engage in hole â€Å"M† (magnitude). Now quarter wave plate is at 45 degrees to the polarizer-analyzer axis thus polariscope is in circular light operation. Difference of principal stresses is given by (1 (2 = (N * C)/t Where N=fringe order at point of measurement C= stress constant of specimen material T = specimen thickness C is usually given by manufacturer. Thus the remaining number to be found is N which can be found according to color pattern as mention in the topic of interpretation of fringe pattern. CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS |S/No. |Applied load |Thickness of |Fringe Order |Direction of |Direction of |Magnitude of |Magnitude of | | |lbs/. 01 inch |specimen |‘N’ |principal stress |principal stress |principal stress |principal stress | | | |‘t’ | | |(threotcal value) | |(threotcal value) | |1 | | | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | | | POINTS TO PONDER: 1. What will be the magnitude of shear stress at a plane of principle stress? 2. Describ e the functions of plane polriscope vs circular polriscope. 3. Describe the importance of calculation of stresses with reference to safety factor in engineering design. 4. Discuss the region of maximum stress for specimen used in experiments and explain with reasoning. 5. In case of residual stresses as a result of specimen machining which recovery method is preferable and why?

Fallacies in the Newspaper -- Journalism

The effective use of rhetoric can spur people into action for worthy causes, bring about positive health changes, and even persuade one to finish a college education. In contrast, like most things in life, what can be used for good can also be used in a negative way to elicit emotions such as outrage, fear, and panic. This type of rhetoric often uses fallacious statements in an appeal to emotion which complicates the matter even more as the emotions are misdirected. Unfortunately, the daily newspapers are filled with numerous examples of fallacious statements. Within the past week, the following five examples appeared in the New York Times and USA Today. The examples included statements that demonstrated scapegoating, slippery slope, ad hominem, straw man, line-drawing, arguments from outrage, and arguments from envy. The first example, in an article about the current condition of income and wealth in the United States, the author stated that the fact that Americans are earning less and worth less than four years ago was started by the â€Å"financial crisis and the sharp decline in the value of homes, the principal asset of Americans, followed by the sharp drop in the stock prices. The crisis led to stubbornly high unemployment that cut income for many Americans and made wage increases harder to obtain for those who did hold on to their jobs† (Norris, 2012). The drop in housing prices is used as a scapegoating technique for the general financial condition of Americans. Scapegoating is a technique that places blame on a specific group for a certain circumstance (Moore & Parker, 2012, p. 187). By placing blame on the housing industry, Norris attempts to demonstrate that the American public is largely experiencing financial ... ...Retrieved from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/09/business/economy/as-recovery-drags-on-income-and-wealth-lag.html Ohio State University. (2012). Statistical Summary. Retrieved from Ohio State University.edu: http://www.osu.edu/osutoday/stuinfo.php Saad, L. (2012). "Pro-choice" Americans at low 41%. Retrieved from Gallup Politics: http://www.gallup.com/poll/154838/Pro-Choice-Americans-Record-Low.aspx?utm_source=alert&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=syndication&utm_content=morelink&utm_term=All%20Gallup%20Headlines?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=gallupnews&utm_c Sara Lee Annual Report. (2012). Sara Lee Annual Report 2011. Retrieved from Sara Lee Corporation: http://www.saralee.com/ourcompany/sl11ar/pdf/2011SL_Financials.pdf USDA. (2011). Profiling food consumption in America. Retrieved from USDA.gov: http://www.usda.gov/factbook/chapter2.pdf

Tikal

With its plethora of palaces, altars, shrines, and soaring temples, Tikal may be the premier Maya site. For over 1,100 years, the Maya built here, expanding the site until it covered an area of 25 square miles. In its heyday, the city may have had 100,000 residents, and it was ruled by a single dynasty of over 39 successive rulers. The heart of the site is the Great Plaza, which is surrounded by the Central Acropolis, the North Acropolis, and Temples I and II.In the North Acropolis alone, 100 buildings lie piled atop one another. Temple I is 145 feet tall, but it is dwarfed by Temple IV. At 212 feet, Temple IV, built around A. D. 741, is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the Western Hemisphere. Champey is located 11km to the south of Lanquin, in a valley with steep walls, surrounded by tropical humid forest. There is a 300m long limestone bridge, on top of which there are several natural pools of different sizes, filled with crystalline mountain spring water.The pools are 3-14 f t. deep. Underneath the bridge is the Cahabon River. At the end of the bridge, the water from the pools falls rejoining the river, forming a 40ft waterfall. The color of the water changes during the year depending on the season, sun and other natural factors, making for unique picture-taking opportunities. It is a beautiful place, often called idyllic. Copan is located in northern Honduras. The first descriptions of Copan appeared in a letter to King Philip II of Spain dated March 8, 1576.Home to the longest text in Precolumbian America, the stairway provides a history of Copan written in stone. More than 2,200 blocks rise from steps that recorded the history of the 16th ruler Yax K’uk Mo’. Carved out of greenish andesite makes this even more fascinating. Alter Q shows Yax K’uk Mo’ transferring power to the final ruler of Copan, Yax Pac. During Holly Week, Antigua Guatemala hosts the most beautiful religious celebration in the America, when huge processio ns wind their way through the town’s streets.The Spanish Colonial style permeates every part of the town: its houses, churches, squares, parks and ruins, also its traditions and folklore as well Copan Ruinas, a small and beautiful town just a few minutes from the Copan Mayan Ruins. It is a peaceful town that offers you all basic services you need to make your visit an enjoyable experience, such as hotels, restaurants, museums, handicrafts, and many other amenities. Just a few minutes away, the Copan Archaelogical Park, declared by UNESCO a Patrimony to Humanity, is waiting for you.Copan Ruinas is located on the Western side of Honduras, very near the border with Guatemala. It is only 12 km from the border crossing point of El Florido, and about 240 km from Guatemala City and 160 km from San Pedro Sula, which is the main Honduran gateway into Copan. http://www. semucchampey. com/en/semuc-champey. html https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gt. html http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/maya/media/copa_01_q. html http://www. lonelyplanet. com/guatemala/practical-information/money-costs http://mayaruins. com/yucmap. html

Can One Be Non-Religious but Still Believe in God

Can one be non-religious but still believe in God? â€Å"My grandfather believed that the greatest religion of all was to ensure that we wipe the tears from every eye and bring hope and decency to every life. If performed with utmost humility, he said, this service would grant us the magnanimity to recognize and accept the many ways we are called to see God in humanity. † –Sankara Saranam (Saranam, 2005) One can still believe in God without associating with religion.This is possible when people believe in searching for God through themselves, by choosing to distance themselves from religion because they do not want to be bound by religious ideals, and by staying away from religion due to one’s belief that the name of religion is misused in today’s time with the name of God. People often believe in God by searching for the divine power through their inner selves. God exists within every human heart in the form of the love, compassion, understanding, and oth er positive traits that the human kind is capable of, yet they choose to suppress (Saranam, 2005).Often, one does not realize that regardless of what religion one follows, God is inside each human heart through all the positive qualities and emotions that one possesses. All the emotions that one feels are God given, therefore the search to connect with him can be done through one’s reflection of their life and the choices they have made. God is everywhere, so in order to connect with Him; one can choose to worship his power and existence without involving any religious aspect to their relationship.One may choose to distance themselves from religion because they believe that indulging in it will restrict them from living their life on their own terms. Some people may choose to believe that what religious holy books teach, may tie them down to follow it faithfully. Moreover, if one decides to marry someone out of their religion, they may be accused of not being loyal enough to it. For example, Islam teaches that marrying outside of the religion is permitted only when the social and cultural values of Islam become the dominant values of the society, in which the man and the woman are living in.Therefore, if a Muslim man were to marry a Hindu girl, the girl would have to give up her religion and devote herself to her spouse’s religion. People would rather choose to believe that God accepts the union of every man and woman regardless of their race or color, because love is above all. Some people do not agree with these societal boundaries that are created by the difference of religion and that is why they choose to distance themselves from it. Some people may believe that religion is being misused in today’s time using the name of God.People who are currently having a bad phase in their life may be lured into false promises by priests of their religion that they can solve all their problems in their life and regain happiness if they conduct rel igious prayer ceremonies to â€Å"appease† the Lord. Furthermore, it can be believed that people often fear God and because of this, they believe that priests and vicars are living the right kind of life that is free of sin, a one that God would want them to.So, they become misguided and donate to these priests in hopes that that will be included as a genuine good deed and that God will be happy with them. As L. Ron Hubbard had once said, â€Å"If you want to make a little money, write a book. If you want to make a lot of money, create a religion† (Hubbard, 2012). Religion is supposed to be sacred and considered a logical explanation of how God and the world came to be, although it has been made a mockery of in today’s society.Every year, people donate hundreds of dollars to religious institutions, unaware of where their hard earned money is really going. Therefore, some people choose to not involve themselves with these religious gimmicks and choose to practice their own religion, which is their personal relationship with God. Religion is not the only pathway that leads to the divine mystery we label as God, the Creator of Everything. Due to all the hatred, ignorance, and enmity that religion has caused amongst humans, some people believe to label their religion as just humanity.This religion does not have boundaries and restrictions, instead, it teaches everyone to love and respect one another. One can still believe in God without any involvement of religion. This is possible when people believe in searching for God through themselves, keeping away from religion because they do not want to be tied down by religious ideals, and by refraining from practicing religion due to one’s belief that the name of religion is misused in today’s time using God.

SAT Score Range 3 Steps to Understanding Your Score

SAT Score Range 3 Steps to Understanding Your Score SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Confused about the SAT score range? It's no secret that the SAT has undergone drastic changes since 2016, shifting from a 2400-point scale to a markedly narrower 1600-point scale. But what do these numbers mean for you? And how can you use SAT score ranges to determine the scores you need for college? First, we'll discuss the current SAT scores range for the exam as a whole and for each SAT section and subsection. After, we’ll take a close look at how SAT scores are distributed among test takers, explain why colleges maintain different SAT score ranges, and teach you how to set your own SAT goal score. What Is the SAT Score Range? Altogether, the SAT score range is 400-1600 for your composite SAT score (i.e., Evidence-Based Reading and Writing + Math). Three individual sections comprise this total score: Reading, Writing and Language (often called Writing), and Math. The Math score range is 200-800 in 10-point increments. The Reading and Writing sections, however, work a little differently. At first, these two sections are scored separately in one-point increments on a scale of 10-40. They are then converted (using an individualized equating process) into one Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW) score on a scale of 200-800 (the same as the Math scale). Note that the composite SAT score range does not include the optional Essay. The Essay score has three dimensions to it: Reading, Analysis, and Writing. Two readers will each assign you three scores on a scale of 1-4. The two scores from these readers are then combined to give you a total SAT score range of 2-8 for each of the three dimensions. So a perfect Essay score would be 8|8|8. We're not finished yet! The SAT also contains subscores and cross-test scores, which are calculated separately on scales of 1-15 and 10-40, respectively. Subscores and cross-test scores indicate your level of mastery of specific skills, such as vocabulary knowledge and algebra. Here are the EBRW subscores: Expression of Ideas Standard English Conventions Words in Context Command of Evidence And here are the Math subscores: Heart of Algebra Problem Solving and Data Analysis Passport to Advanced Math Cross-test scores are a little different; they measure your performance on history/social studies and science questions on all SAT sections (excluding the Essay). The two SAT cross-test scores are as follows: Analysis in History/Social Studies Analysis in Science The SAT has four sections, and even its sections have sections! To help you visualize what we've touched on so far, here is a detailed chart showcasing each SAT scores range: SAT Score Range (2016-Present) SAT Section Score Range Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW) 200-800 Reading 10-40 Writing and Language 10-40 Expression of Ideas 1-15 Standard English Conventions 1-15 Words in Context 1-15 Command of Evidence 1-15 Math 200-800 Heart of Algebra 1-15 Problem Solving and Data Analysis 1-15 Passport to Advanced Math 1-15 Cross-Test Scores* - Analysis in History/Social Studies 10-40 Analysis in Science 10-40 TOTAL (EBRW + Math) 400-1600 Essay 2-8 | 2-8 | 2-8 Reading 2-8 Analysis 2-8 Writing 2-8 *Cross-test scores are for the Reading, Writing, and Math sections All of these score ranges are for the current redesigned SAT (2016-present). But what about the pre-2016 SAT? Contrary to what we have now, the old SAT score scale was 600-2400 (as opposed to 400-1600) and there were no subscores or cross-test scores as there are today. Additionally, test takers got separate Critical Reading and Writing scores, the latter of which was a combination of your Writing and Essay scores. (Nowadays, the SAT Essay is optional and does not count toward your composite SAT score.) Here is an overview of the old SAT scores scale: Old SAT Score Range (Pre-2016) SAT Section Score Range Critical Reading 200-800 Math 200-800 Writing Composite 200-800 Writing Multiple Choice 20-80 Essay 0-12 TOTAL (All Sections) 600-2400 SAT Score Distribution The College Board redesigned the SAT in 2016 so that a total score of approximately 1000- the middle score between 400 (the minimum) and 1600 (the maximum), or the highest point on the SAT bell curve- would signify the average score of test takers. This score is in contrast to the pre-2016 SAT average of around 1500, which was the middle point between 600 and 2400 (the old SAT minimum and maximum). The current SAT bell curve means that most SAT takers score around 1000, and very few score extremely high (1500 and higher) or extremely low (700 and below). According to data collected by the College Board, the average SAT score is 1068- pretty close to 1000. Below is a chart showcasing the current SAT percentiles for EBRW, Math, and the exam as a whole. As a reminder, percentiles indicate what percentage of test takers you scored higher than on a given section. Thus, the higher your percentile, the more impressive your score is. Percentile EBRW Math TOTAL 99 and 99+ 750-800 790-800 1500-1600 90 670 680-690 1340 75 610 600 1200-1210 50 530* 520* 1050-1060 25 460 450 910-920 10 400-410 380-390 800 1 and 1- 200-330 200-320 400-680 *Estimated score based on current percentiles We can use SAT percentiles to help us understand how many (or, rather, how few) test takers scored at the extreme ends of the exam. According to this data, a 99th percentile or higher SAT score is anywhere from 1500 to a perfect 1600. This means that only 1% of test takers scored 1500 or higher on the SAT. So you don't need to get a perfect score in order to reach the 99th percentile- you can miss as many as 100 points and still achieve that top 1% distinction on your SAT score report! Likewise, very few test takers scored on the lower end of the SAT score range. Only 1% of test takers scored between 400 (the absolute minimum) and 680; that's a huge 280-point span! What this ultimately means is that you’re very likely to earn at least 280 points on the SAT since 99% of test takers score above 680. In regard to SAT section scores, once again few test takers scored the highest and lowest possible scores. To hit the 99th percentile on EBRW, you’d have to score 750 or higher. But to do the same on Math, you’d need to earn a 790. This trend indicates that the Math section is generally more competitive than the EBRW section, as more people score higher on Math than on EBRW. As for the 1st percentile, EBRW and Math maintain respective score ranges of 200-330 and 200-320. This means only 1% of test takers scored 320 or below on either section and the vast majority scored higher than 330. But how can you figure out what kinds of SAT scores you'll need for your colleges specifically? Read on to find out! To get to this point, you must first get IN. What Are SAT Score Ranges for Colleges? There are no general SAT scores range for colleges; instead, every school maintains its own SAT scores range as a means to compare applicants' SAT scores. This range represents the middle 50% of SAT scores (usually of incoming students). What do I mean by "middle 50%"? Think of it as being similar to average SAT scores- only instead of a single average, you're given a range of scores consisting of the 25th and 75th percentiles for a particular group of students. A 25th percentile score means that 25% of incoming students scored at or lower than a particular threshold on the SAT, whereas a 75th percentile score indicates that 75% of students scored at or lower than a different (and higher) threshold. For example, here are the current 25th and 75th percentile SAT scores for Yale: Exactly how is this info helpful to you? SAT score ranges tell you how high you must score on the SAT in order to be on par with (and better than) other applicants. In general, a score in the 75th percentile or higher is a safe bet, as this means that your SAT scores will exceed those of most other applicants. You can find SAT score ranges for most schools using our database. Simply search for "[School Name] PrepScholar" or "[School Name] PrepScholar SAT." Here's an example of the page I got when I searched "university of delaware prepscholar sat": Click on either link to get to the PrepScholar page for your school. SAT score ranges will typically appear in a box as so: You can also check out our comprehensive guide to SAT scores for colleges, which contains a list of 100+ schools and their SAT score ranges. Want to learn more about the SAT but tired of reading blog articles? Then you'll love our free, SAT prep livestreams. Designed and led by PrepScholar SAT experts, these live video events are a great resource for students and parents looking to learn more about the SAT and SAT prep. Click on the button below to register for one of our livestreams today! How to Set an SAT Goal Score: 3-Step Guide In the simplest of terms, you’ll want to get the best SAT score you can get on test day. To do this, you must determine your SAT goal score. A goal score is the score that's most likely to get you into all the schools you're applying to. Follow our three simple steps below to set your own SAT goal score. Step 1: Make a Chart Before jumping headfirst into your SAT score research, make a simple chart of all of the schools you're applying to (excluding any safety schools). You may download our worksheet or create a chart like the one below. Draw two columns for the 25th and 75th percentiles for each of your schools. Here is a sample: School 25th Percentile 75th Percentile University of Washington University of Oregon UCLA UC Santa Barbara Step 2: Look Up SAT Score Info Next, begin looking up SAT score info for each of the schools on your table. Specifically, you’ll want to look up the middle 50% (i.e., the 25th and 75th percentiles) for each of your schools. To find these ranges, search for "[School Name] PrepScholar" or "[School Name] PrepScholar SAT" on Google. Most schools should be in our database, but if you can't find yours, you may instead search for "[School Name] average SAT scores" or "[School Name] 25th 75th percentile SAT" and look for relevant links to the school's official website. Here is an example of the PrepScholar page for the University of Washington: Now, here is our chart again, with all the schools' 25th and 75th percentiles filled out: School 25th Percentile 75th Percentile University of Washington 1190 1420 University of Oregon 1080 1270 UCLA 1240 1490 UC Santa Barbara 1270 1500 If at any point you get tired, just take an ice cream break. Step 3: Calculate Your SAT Goal Score The last step is to find your goal score. The highest score in your chart (in your 75th percentile column) will be your target SAT score. This score is the most likely to get you into all the schools in your chart. In our example above, this score would be 1500 for UC Santa Barbara. But what about your goal scores for each section? To get your individual EBRW and Math goal scores, divide your total goal score by 2. So a goal score of 1420 means that you'd have to aim for around 710 on both sections (assuming you're trying to get about the same score on each). If you’re applying to engineering programs or other field-specific schools, you'll want to aim for a slightly higher score on the SAT section more relevant to your particular major. For example, aspiring engineers applying to MIT should focus more on trying to achieve an extremely high Math score instead of a super high EBRW score. Takeaways: What to Know About the SAT Score Range The total SAT score range for the SAT is 400-1600 in 10-point increments. This score comprises two sections: EBRW and Math, whose score ranges are each 200-800. EBRW can be further divided into Reading and Writing, which each use a scale of 10-40. The optional Essay consists of three separate scores on scales of 2-8. There are also subscores and cross-test scores, which use smaller scales of 1-15 and 10-40, respectively. The old SAT differed greatly in its score scale. Before 2016, the SAT score range was 600-2400 in 10-point increments, and the exam had three sections (Critical Reading, Math, and Writing), each of which used a scale of 200-800. On the current SAT score range, a score of around 1000 (the midway point of the score range) is the average SAT score. (The actual average is 1068 for all 11th and 12th graders.) In terms of score ranges for colleges, each school has its own SAT score range, or middle 50%, to show the average range of SAT scores for incoming students. The lower SAT score in this range is the 25th percentile, while the higher score is the 75th percentile. Finally, follow these steps to find your SAT goal score: #1: Make a chart with your schools' names and their 25th and 75th SAT percentiles. #2: Look up SAT score info for your schools. You can use our own SAT database or official school websites. Record the 25th and 75th percentile for each school in your chart. #3: Find the highest 75th percentile score in your chart- this will be your target score. Aiming for this SAT score will increase your chance of gaining admission to all the schools in your chart. Now, get out there and ace the SAT. Remember- you got this! What’s Next? Want more info on SAT scores? Check out our in-depth guides to learn how the SAT is scored and what constitutes a great, a good, and a poor SAT score. Gearing up for college applications? In our article on the SAT scores you'll need for college, we've gathered the average SAT scores for dozens of popular schools, both private and public. Aiming for a perfect SAT score? It's not impossible, I promise! For step-by-step tips, take a look at our comprehensive guide to getting a full 1600- written entirely by a perfect scorer. Disappointed with your scores? Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Century medical history

An important person was Edward , who discovered a smallpox vaccination. He did not actually invent it, because it had already existed. She ran an experiment on an eight year old boy to test the smallpox vaccine. He did this by giving him first which served as a immunization. Joseph Priestley was an important figure in the century. He discovered the now called element oxygen. Before his discovery, people did not understand what air or what it was made of. He also was a researcher, Philosopher and a Chemist.Benjamin Franklin Invented the bifocals, although he was greatly known for his work In electrical theory. He established laws on how electricity operates, how to store and use It. He Is also famous for his experiment with the kite and key. Rune Invented the Stethoscope. With this he Investigated sounds made by the heart and lungs, and compared It to his diagnosis he got from autopsies. He also wrote the first descriptions of and cirrhosis and also classified lung conditions Like pneumonia, pleurisy and emphysema.Lastly, John Hunter was a surgeon of the century and Is now known as founder of scientific surgery. He made many advances In surgical procedures, while teaching anatomy and surgery. He also first documented reports on tube feeding. By immunization. Joseph Priestley was an important figure in the century. He Philosopher and a Chemist. Benjamin Franklin invented the bifocals, although he was greatly known for his work in electrical theory.He established laws on how electricity operates, how to store and use it. He is also famous for his experiment with the kite and key. Rune invented the Stethoscope. With this he investigated sounds made by the heart and lungs, and compared it to his diagnosis he got from also classified lung conditions like pneumonia, pleurisy and emphysema.

Assess the Value of Formal Investment Appraisal Techniques Essay

Assess the Value of Formal Investment Appraisal Techniques - Essay Example The central themes of all three writers under review have therefore been to look into how best practices in formal investment start up have been adhered to; particularly with the cases of acquisition of venture capital. Below, there is a detailed discussion of the three themes of the essay as presented from the perspectives of the three writers. Formal Investment Appraisal as Part of a Businesss Plan (Ashmalla et al.) Ashamalla, Orife and Abel (2008) who pointed to venture capital as a formal investment type in today’s contemporary world, they point to the designing of business plans as the most viable formal investment appraisal to use to secure venture capital and also assess the progress of the ventures that come out of the venture capital investment. Ashamalla, Orife and Abel (2008 p. 385) take the meaning of formal investment from the perspective of venture capital. The writers therefore undertake exclusive research on how business owners perceive venture capital and how they go about the subject. The writers explain that venture capital is an aspect of formal investment whereby business owners and investors seek for source of funding to start up their businesses and ventures. This is has indeed been an ongoing phenomenon in contemporary business setting for a very long time. Primarily, investors and entrepreneurs seek for capital to start up their businesses because of the belief they have always had in their abilities to make revenues, amass profits and pay off the sources of their capital. Because the search for capital to start up any venture results in an eventual amassment of wealth, Ashamalla, Orife and Abel (2008, p. 386) regard the practice as an important investment pattern in contemporary business scenarios. Generally, investments are undertaken to make profits. To this extent, the writer agrees with Ashamalla, Orife and Abel (2008) on this point that venture capital is now regarded as an important source of formal investment for business owners and investors. The writer however criticizes the situation whereby investors have to look for other form of funds to pay off their debts. This is because it is not always certain that the ventures they start will be profitable. The writers therefore collected data on how different respondents who were all business oriented personnel viewed and envisioned the use of business plan as an appraisal technique. In the larger sense, there were several respondents who agreed to the importance of business plans in helping investors secure venture capital. The reason given by such respondents has to do with the fact that business plans helps the creditors in assessing the real strategies and visions of the capital seekers. In this way, the capital seekers are put in a better position to convince creditors that they have put enough plans in place to pay off the debts should it be granted. There were respondents who also held the view that business plans are only cosmetic and that they do not actually raise the chances of capital seekers of securing capital. From the estimation of the writer, an investor who has not started a venture yet could have nothing more tangible in proofing his lot than a business plan. Business plans are there very important appraisal techniqu